ARC404 — Archaeology of Nigeria: Lecture Note

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Course code: ARC 404 Course title: Archaeology of Nigeria Course credit load: 3 Units C: LH 45 List of Series: 1. Series 1: Nigerian Paleoenvironment and Archaeological History 2. Series 2: University and Museum Archaeology in Nigeria 3. Series 3: The Nigerian Stone Age and Food Production 4. Series 4: The Nigerian Iron Age and Urban Origins 5. Series 5: Major Archaeological Sites of Nigeria Series 1: Nigerian Paleoenvironment and Archaeological History Parts and Sub-Parts Part 1: Nigeria's Physical and Environmental Setting 6. 1.1.1 Geographical zones and ecological diversity 7. 1.1.2 River systems, drainage basins, and their archaeological significance Part 2: Paleoenvironmental Change in Nigeria 8. 1.2.1 Quaternary climatic fluctuations and their ecological impact 9. 1.2.2 Evidence for paleoenvironmental change in the Nigerian record Part 3: A History of Archaeological Research in Nigeria 10. 1.3.1 Early colonial-era investigations and their legacy 11. 1.3.2 Post-independence developments in Nigerian archaeology Part 4: Theoretical and Methodological Frameworks 12. 1.4.1 Theoretical approaches in Nigerian archaeological research 13. 1.4.2 Key methods applied in the Nigerian context Part 5: Chronology and Dating in Nigerian Archaeology 14. 1.5.1 Absolute and relative dating methods 15. 1.5.2 Building the Nigerian archaeological chronology

Introduction Nigeria occupies a geographically and ecologically privileged position in West Africa. Its landscapes range from the Sahel in the far north through the Guinea savanna and rainforest belt to the Atlantic coast in the south, and its two great rivers — the Niger and the Benue — have shaped both human settlement and the preservation of archaeological evidence over millennia. Understanding this environmental backdrop is the essential first step in the study of Nigerian archaeology. The aim of this Series is to equip you with a foundational understanding of Nigeria's physical and paleoenvironmental setting, the history of archaeological research in the country, and the theoretical and methodological frameworks and chronological tools that define the discipline in the Nigerian context. We shall commence this Series by examining Nigeria's physical geography and ecological zones, before exploring how climate changed over the Quaternary period and the evidence for these changes preserved in the archaeological and palaeoenvironmental record. Following that, we will trace the history of archaeological research in Nigeria from its colonial beginnings to post-independence developments. We will then consider the theoretical and methodological frameworks that guide research, before concluding with an overview of the dating methods that underpin the Nigerian archaeological chronology.

Series Learning Outcomes Upon completing this Series, you should be able to: 16. SLO 1.1 describe Nigeria's geographical zones, ecological diversity, and major river systems and explain their archaeological significance, 17. SLO 1.2 explain Quaternary climatic fluctuations and evaluate the evidence for paleoenvironmental change preserved in the Nigerian record, 18. SLO 1.3 trace the history of archaeological research in Nigeria from the colonial era to the present, 19. SLO 1.4 identify the theoretical and methodological frameworks applied in Nigerian archaeological research, and 20. SLO 1.5 describe absolute and relative dating methods and explain how they contribute to building the Nigerian archaeological chronology. 1.1 Nigeria's Physical And Environmental Setting 1.1.1 Geographical zones and ecological diversity Nigeria covers approximately 923,768 square kilometres and encompasses a remarkable range of ecological zones aligned broadly from north to south. The far north is characterised by the Sahel and Sudan savanna, with sparse vegetation and low, seasonal rainfall. Moving southward, the Guinea savanna — the largest ecological zone — supports a mosaic of woodland, grassland, and gallery forest. The derived savanna and rainforest belt occupy the south and southwest, with dense vegetation and high annual rainfall. The Niger Delta and Atlantic coastline in the south present a distinctive ecology of mangrove swamp, freshwater marsh, and barrier islands. This ecological diversity has shaped patterns of human occupation, subsistence, and mobility across deep time. Fill in the blank: The largest ecological zone in Nigeria, characterised by a mosaic of woodland and grassland, is the __________ savanna.

1.1.2 River systems, drainage basins, and their archaeological significance The River Niger and its major tributary, the River Benue, form Nigeria's principal drainage system, meeting at Lokoja before flowing south to the Niger Delta. These rivers have served as corridors for human migration, trade, and communication since prehistoric times, and their floodplains and terraces preserve stratified archaeological deposits spanning tens of thousands of years. Smaller river systems — including the Sokoto, Kaduna, Gongola, and Cross rivers — have also been important zones of prehistoric occupation. The alluvial deposits along river terraces are particularly significant because they preserve organic materials, lithic assemblages, and faunal remains in datable stratigraphic contexts. Fill in the blank: The River Niger and River Benue meet at __________ before flowing south to the Niger Delta. A map of Nigeria showing the major ecological zones from north to south — Sahel, Sudan savanna,

Guinea savanna, derived savanna, rainforest, and Niger Delta — alongside the courses of the Niger and Benue rivers. Figure 1.1 Nigeria's ecological zones and major river systems. Pilot questions 1.1 1. Name four of the major ecological zones found in Nigeria from north to south. 2. The largest ecological zone in Nigeria is the __________ savanna. 3. Where do the Rivers Niger and Benue meet? 4. Why are river floodplains and terraces particularly significant for archaeological research in Nigeria? 5. Name two smaller river systems in Nigeria that have been important zones of prehistoric occupation. 1.2 Paleoenvironmental Change In Nigeria 1.2.1 Quaternary climatic fluctuations and their ecological impact The Quaternary period (spanning roughly the last 2.6 million years) was characterised by repeated cycles of climatic cooling and warming that profoundly altered the distribution of vegetation zones, water availability, and human habitability across West Africa. During glacial maxima — periods of maximum global cooling — the Sahara expanded southward, vegetation zones contracted, and lake levels fell, restricting zones suitable for human occupation in what is now northern Nigeria. Conversely, during humid interglacials, wetter conditions expanded the savanna and forest zones northward, enabling greater human mobility and resource availability. The most recent major humid phase, the African Humid Period (approximately 11,000–5,000 years ago), had a particularly significant impact on settlement patterns and the emergence of food production in the region.

Fill in the blank: The African Humid Period lasted from approximately 11,000 to __________ years ago and had a significant impact on settlement and food production. 1.2.2 Evidence for paleoenvironmental change in the Nigerian record Evidence for past environmental conditions in Nigeria comes from multiple proxy sources. Pollen analysis (palynology) of lake sediments and peats reconstructs past vegetation cover. Lake core records from Lake Chad and other basins record fluctuations in water levels, salinity, and sedimentation linked to rainfall changes. Faunal assemblages from archaeological sites indicate which animal species were present under different climatic regimes. Stable isotope analysis of soils, plant remains, and animal bones can distinguish C3 (forest) from C4 (grassland) vegetation, providing a proxy for vegetation change. Together, these sources allow archaeologists to reconstruct the environmental contexts within which past human populations lived, moved, and adapted. Fill in the blank: The analysis of fossil pollen from lake sediments and peats to reconstruct past vegetation cover is known as __________.

A timeline diagram showing major Quaternary climatic phases relevant to West Africa, including glacial maxima, humid interglacials, and the African Humid Period, with approximate dates. Figure 1.2 Quaternary climatic phases and their significance for West African prehistory. Pilot questions 1.2 6. What characterised West African environments during glacial maxima of the Quaternary? 7. The African Humid Period occurred approximately between __________ and 5,000 years ago. 8. Name two proxy sources of paleoenvironmental evidence used in Nigeria. 9. How does stable isotope analysis help reconstruct past vegetation in Nigeria? 10. What effect did humid interglacials have on vegetation zones and human mobility in West Africa?

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